Calisthenics Instructor Certification Chapter 12: Training

 

Chapter 12: Training

Core Concepts & Definitions

Exercise
A structured bout of movement and/or any muscular activation that requires energy expenditure above resting levels.

Physical activity
Any body movement performed to expend energy and to improve or maintain health.

Physical fitness
The organism’s physiological readiness to adapt as quickly as possible to the demands of a specific muscular task. Fitness is multifactorial and comprises 11 parameters:

  • Cardiorespiratory endurance (aerobic capacity)
  • Strength
  • Muscular endurance (anaerobic–lactic capacity)
  • Flexibility
  • Body composition (percent body fat; percent fat-free mass)
  • Speed
  • Agility
  • Balance
  • Coordination
  • Muscular power (strength × speed; anaerobic–alactic)
  • Reaction time

Homeostasis
The self-regulating process by which the body tends to maintain stable internal conditions despite external change (W.E. Cannon, 1932). Planned training stimuli disturb this dynamic equilibrium, prompting adaptations. With repeated exposure, the body achieves the same tasks more economically. Adaptations may be acute (within or immediately after a session) or chronic (over weeks to months).

Type of exercise
Exercises can be categorized by:

  • Energy demand: aerobic vs. anaerobic
  • Movement pattern: dynamic vs. static; intermittent vs. continuous
  • Intensity: maximal vs. submaximal
  • Duration: short, moderate, or long
    (One exercise may belong to several categories at once.)

Training adaptation
A stimulus-driven change—biochemical, morphological, and functional—in bodily systems (from training or competition) that elevates performance capacity and accustoms the athlete to specific external conditions.

Technique
The practical procedure for solving motor tasks as economically and rationally as possible (Kellis, 2003). The goal is an engrained motor pattern—automated movement. High-level technique depends on sensorimotor integration; skilled execution is the ability to achieve the desired result with maximal certainty and minimal time and energy cost.

Muscular strength
The maximal force that a muscle or muscle group can produce in a single contraction. Determinants include fiber type and architecture, contraction type and velocity, initial muscle length and joint angle. Maximal strength is limited by neural inhibition, which can be reduced through training.

Muscular endurance
The capacity of muscles to resist fatigue while performing repeated contractions or sustaining an isometric contraction over time.

Muscular power
The peak force a muscle or muscle group can generate per unit time (strength × velocity).

Intermuscular coordination
The cooperative interaction of participating muscles (agonists and antagonists) within a movement.

Intramuscular coordination
Neuro-muscular control within a single muscle: the number of motor units recruited and their firing rate.

Coordinative Abilities

Following Hirtz (1985) and Frey (1982), coordinative abilities are foundational control and regulation capacities that allow athletes to perform movements accurately and economically in both predictable (motor stereotypes) and unpredictable situations (adaptation), and to learn new skills efficiently. They are distinct from skills, which are specific, often automated acts. Key abilities:

  1. Combining ability – Integrating limb and segment movements into a purposeful whole-body action.
  2. Spatial orientation – Anticipating and guiding movement in space and time, largely via visual information.
  3. Kinesthetic differentiation – Executing distinct movement phases with precision and economy based on proprioceptive feedback.
  4. Dexterity – Fine coordination of head, hands, and feet, plus the ability to relax selectively and regulate muscle tone.
  5. Balance – Maintaining or regaining stability in changing conditions; solving motor problems under unstable support or shifting center of mass.
  6. Complex reaction ability – Initiating brief, purposeful actions rapidly in response to visual, auditory, or tactile cues; quick, effective reactions to unforeseen events.
  7. Adaptation (transformation) ability – Modifying motor programs to new conditions; updating or continuing an action sequence as circumstances change.
  8. Rhythm ability – Adjusting movements to external rhythms (e.g., music) or internally generated rhythms.

These abilities strongly influence performance across sports. Technical level depends on motor learning, which in turn rests on broad, continuous practice of coordinative abilities, expanding movement experience and building a wide base of coordination.

Methods to Develop Coordinative Abilities (after Harre, 1987)

  1. Practice first. Systematic, regular practice of physical exercises is the primary method.
  2. Teach and execute with precision. General and sport-specific drills must be taught correctly and performed under continuous supervision; poor practice engrains poor patterns.
  3. Select targeted means. Choose training tasks that emphasize the specific coordinative ability you aim to improve.
  4. Raise coordination demands. Use special methods (e.g., varied surfaces, dual-tasking, altered rhythms, unexpected cues) to increase coordinative challenge and amplify training effects.

 

Training – Theory of Training

Training refers to all stimuli and loads that induce morphological and physiological adaptations in the human body. It is the organized and methodical application of exercise with the goal of improving efficiency and performance.

  • Efficiency (Output): What is produced, usually per unit of time.
  • Performance: The achievement measured against known standards of accuracy, completeness, energy cost, or speed.

Factors Influencing Athletic Performance

Athletic performance depends on at least four factors:

  1. Technical Performance – biomechanical efficiency and naturalness of movement.
  2. Physical Fitness – based on the combined function of the body’s energy systems and especially the muscles, expressed as strength, speed, endurance, and agility (Martin et al., 2000).
  3. Kinesthesia – the athlete’s awareness of the force applied during movement and the position of body parts in space (Enoka, 2008).
  4. Body Language & Behavior – the way the athlete reacts to psychological or environmental situations.

Other crucial factors include psychological skills (anxiety control, perception, motivation), lifestyle elements (nutrition, sleep), and environment. High-level athletic performance can be defined as consistently exceptional results over a long period of time. Champions must excel physiologically, technically, cognitively, and emotionally.

The Science of Training (Theory of Training)

The theory of training is the scientific discipline that establishes the fundamental principles, reveals the laws governing the training process, and develops methods for guiding it.

It is divided into three main categories:

  1. General or Basic Training
    • Applies broadly to all sports and forms of exercise.
    • Mostly used during the preparation phase.
    • Focuses on general fitness, aerobic endurance, muscular endurance, strength, agility, and foundational abilities.
  2. Specific Training
    • Refers to the unique characteristics of each sport or discipline.
    • Builds upon the principles of general training.
    • Applied mainly during the specific preparation phase.
    • Aims to refine technical skills, improve sport-specific physical fitness, and address individual weaknesses.
    • Uses specialized exercises, resistance-based drills, and movements closely related to the biomechanical and neuromuscular demands of the sport.
  3. Competitive Training
    • Focused on competition preparation.
    • Applies and tests technical skills under real game or event conditions.
    • Includes both specialized training elements and actual competitions.
    • The main goal is the consolidation and consistent execution of technique under pressure.

 

Principles of Training

The principles of training are scientific rules that guide the design, implementation, and supervision of the training process. They cover all aspects of training methodology and apply across the entire long-term training cycle. These principles are not independent—often they overlap, complement one another, or even partially exclude each other. For this reason, not all of them can be applied simultaneously.

Key Principles

1. Principle of Effective Training Stimulus
A training stimulus must exceed a certain threshold of intensity and volume to provoke adaptive responses. Adaptation occurs only when the load challenges the athlete’s current capacity.

  • High volume with insufficient intensity = no adaptation.
  • High intensity with insufficient volume = no adaptation.
    Improvement requires stimuli that push the body close to its maximum capacity, beyond the demands of daily life.

2. Principle of Progression
Training loads should increase gradually and periodically, not continuously. Adaptations are optimized when the stimulus becomes progressively more demanding:

  • Increased complexity of movement coordination and technique
  • Higher frequency of training sessions (up to daily for advanced athletes)
  • Increased training volume and intensity
  • Reduced rest intervals
  • Increased competition exposure (for active athletes)

3. Principle of Specificity
Training adaptations are specific to the type of exercise, muscle groups, and energy systems targeted. General stimuli produce general adaptations, while specialized stimuli produce specific adaptations directly linked to performance in a given sport.

Phases of long-term training progression:

  1. General conditioning – general physical fitness, almost identical across sports.
  2. Transition phase – developing the key performance factors of the target sport.
  3. Specialization – refining the most important abilities for the sport, moving from general to highly specific adaptations.

4. Principle of Variation
Training loads must alternate between high and low (both in quantity and quality) to stimulate adaptation while avoiding overtraining. Alternation between hard and easy sessions helps sustain progress and keeps motivation high.

5. Principle of Supercompensation
Adaptation depends on the correct balance between load and recovery. Each training load close to optimal intensity leaves a trace of supercompensation, forming the basis for performance improvement. Performance gains occur during recovery, not during the training itself.

6. Principle of Continuity and Repetition
Technical or tactical skills must be repeated frequently to be learned and mastered. Regular repetition is necessary for consolidation. When training load decreases excessively or stops, adaptations diminish (detraining).

7. Principle of Long-Term Planning
Performance development requires systematic progression over time. Skipping stages in this sequence can leave gaps in the athlete’s development that are difficult to correct later. High-level performance demands time and patience.

8. Principle of Reversibility
Interrupting training leads to the loss (partial or complete) of previous adaptations. This detraining effect is more pronounced in aerobic capacity (oxygen utilization) and less so in anaerobic abilities (short, intense efforts). A break of 3–4 weeks can significantly reduce fitness, even in competitive athletes.

9. Principle of Individualization and Age
Each individual responds differently to the same training load due to genetics, biological age, training history, and other factors. Performance improvements depend on taking into account:

  • Biological and training age
  • Gender
  • Genetic predisposition
  • Maturity
  • Nutrition
  • Initial fitness level
  • Recovery, sleep, stress, illnesses, injuries, and motivation

📌 Note: Additional principles, such as periodization, will be explored in detail later. While these principles can be studied theoretically, their true value is realized in practice—both as athletes and as coaches—because their effects become visible over time.

 

Training Load

Training load is the sum of all training stimuli received by an athlete or exerciser within a single training session or over defined time periods (Kellis & Manou, 2014). When the body is exposed to a stressor such as training, adaptations follow three distinct phases:

  1. Decrease in performance capacity – the immediate fatigue and reduced ability caused by the training stimulus.
  2. Adaptation to the stimulus – the body begins to recover and reorganize.
  3. Increase in performance capacity – supercompensation occurs, leading to improved ability beyond the initial baseline.

Adaptation often shows a rapid improvement, especially when new exercises or methods are introduced, or when unusual or sudden increases in training load are applied. For elite athletes, however, this process unfolds over weeks or even months. In contrast, beginners experience broader effects from each stimulus, as a single exercise often trains multiple capacities simultaneously.

Performance increases only when training loads are accumulated over time—even if the correctness of those loads cannot be immediately confirmed—resulting in periodic leaps in performance.

Supercompensation

Supercompensation (also called over-recovery or over-replenishment) is the process by which the body restores energy reserves above their original levels during recovery. This requires that the recovery phase is preceded by adequate training stimuli. It is during this recovery and replenishment stage that performance gains are truly achieved.

📌 Illustration: The Yakovlev supercompensation cycle (Harre, 1987) is often used to depict this process.

Internal Load

Every external load (training intensity, volume, and exercises) generates an internal load, which is the psychological and physiological response of the body. Internal load is influenced by:

  • Psychological state – emotional readiness, satisfaction with performance, motivation.
  • Environmental conditions – extreme heat or cold, training facilities, competition venue, or even familiarity with the field of play.
  • Competitive factors – including the presence of opponents when winning is at stake.

Psychological Parameters

Internal load is shaped not only by physical stress but also by mental factors. Psychological skills are especially critical for high-level athletes, including:

  • Motivation
  • Goal-setting strategies
  • Self-confidence
  • Positive mindset
  • Mental imagery (visualization)
  • Ability to follow coach’s instructions
  • Interpersonal and social skills
  • Coping with adversity

Elite athletes often excel in both emotional readiness (the ability to control emotions during competition) and psychological competence (the mental skills to consistently perform at high levels).

 

The Fundamental Principle of Calisthenics

Calisthenics is not only an exceptional training system but also a solid foundation for virtually any other sport. It significantly enhances body structure and serves as a primary training base for sports such as gymnastics, parkour, Greco-Roman wrestling, MMA and martial arts in general, climbing, motorsports, downhill racing, pole dancing, and any discipline requiring a strong physique with precise control. The strength one gains through calisthenics is remarkable.

Every type of training induces a specific adaptation. By choosing calisthenics, one is more likely to develop a body resembling that of gymnasts rather than bodybuilders. This outcome, however, also depends on genetics and the types of muscle fibers each individual possesses.

At its core, calisthenics revolves around angles and levers, rooted in the sciences of kinesiology and anatomy. By altering the body’s position or changing the muscle length during exercise—placing it in a biomechanically disadvantaged position—we can increase the load without external weights (e.g., planche, front lever). It is well known that the more elongated a muscle is, the harder it is to contract. For this reason, when an exercise feels too challenging, beginners tend to avoid working through the full range of motion, skipping the extreme positions where muscles are weaker. However, if the goal is to build true strength without external weights, the solution lies in modifying the body’s position or muscle length so that less force can be applied at the end ranges of motion, making the exercise more difficult. This is the magic of bodyweight training.

For instance, notice how much easier it is to perform exercises on rings or a pull-up bar with slightly bent elbows compared to attempting them with fully extended arms (straight-arm strength). Muscle elongation can make the very same exercise feel entirely new. This is also where the principle of progression—introduced earlier—applies directly.

In simple terms, calisthenics can be represented as:

Point A (starting point) → preparatory exercises/progressions → Point B (goal/skill)

Progress toward a goal is achieved step by step by breaking it down into progressions and gradually adding load. Any athlete aiming to master a skill safely and without injury must pass through its proper progressions. These are the foundations for every goal, no matter how unattainable it may seem at first. Progressions are the key—building exercise upon exercise, progressively—until mastery is achieved.

Example progression:

Tuck Planche → Straddle Planche → Full Planche

Physiology of Strength in Calisthenics

In calisthenics, most exercises are compound (multi-joint) movements, engaging multiple joints and muscle groups simultaneously. Isolation is used less frequently. This approach results in faster, more balanced strength gains, joint strengthening, and improvements in proprioception and kinesthesia compared to isolated exercises.

  • Proprioception: the conscious and unconscious awareness of joint position and movement.
  • Kinesthesia: the sense of movement in a joint, including its acceleration or deceleration.

However, isolation exercises also play a role—for example, in rehabilitation or when practicing a technique with minimal load before integrating it into a compound movement. The process of coordinating muscle contractions for joint action is known as motor coordination.

Strength is developed through repeated execution of exercises (repetitions or reps) organized into sets, based on the athlete’s goals. Training levels are generally categorized as:

  • Novice
  • Intermediate
  • Advanced
  • Elite

The more inexperienced the athlete, the quicker and easier adaptations occur. Advanced athletes, however, require carefully structured training with specific planning of frequency, total volume, number of exercises, intensity, repetitions, and sets per session.

Training includes:

  • Pushing exercises: moving weight away from the body’s center of mass.
  • Pulling exercises: bringing weight closer to the center of mass.
  • Isolation exercises: useful for targeted strengthening (e.g., biceps), though insufficient on their own except as complementary work.

Repetition count determines the outcome:

  • Strength → low reps, high load.
  • Strength endurance → high reps, lower load.

It’s important to note that strength and endurance cannot both be maximized simultaneously, as they require opposing training approaches. Strength takes longer to develop than endurance, but as maximum strength increases, endurance capacity also rises.

 

The Basic Structure of a Training Routine

Designing a training routine involves defining specific parameters. These components, when combined, determine the overall training load or help measure it effectively.

Training Parameters

  • Volume – The total duration or workload of training.
    In practice, training load is expressed as the ratio of total volume to training time.

    • In technical training, volume = total number of attempts.
    • In strength training, volume = total lifted weight.
    • In muscular endurance training, volume = number of repetitions.
    • In aerobic endurance, volume = distance (e.g., kilometers).
  • Duration – The time a given exercise can be sustained at the required intensity without rest. Duration is inversely proportional to intensity.
  • Intensity – The degree of physical effort, pace, or resistance to be overcome. It is measured by stimulus strength or total work produced per unit of time. Intensity also determines which energy system supports muscular work (aerobic vs. anaerobic).
    Levels of intensity:

    • Low: <55%
    • Moderate: 55–70%
    • High: 70–90%
    • Very High: 90–99%
    • Maximal: 100%
    • Supramaximal: >100% (e.g., HIIT at ~170% VO₂max)
  • Repetitions (Reps) – The number of times an exercise is performed.
  • Sets – The group of repetitions performed before taking a rest interval. Multiple reps make up one set.
  • Recovery Time (Rest) – The period needed for regaining energy between repetitions and sets. Rest between sets is usually longer. Recovery is considered an integral part of the training load.
  • Training Frequency – The number of training sessions within a defined period (usually measured by microcycles of one week). Frequency depends on the athlete’s ability, goals, and overall program design.
  • Training Density – The ratio of work to rest within a training session. It is influenced by:
    1. Changes in the length of rest intervals between exercises.
    2. Inclusion of additional tasks during rest periods (e.g., flexibility work).
    3. Adjustments in the number of breaks.
    • Shorter rest → higher density → greater overall load.
    • Longer rest → lower density → lighter overall load.

Types of Muscle Contractions

According to kinesiology, muscular contraction can be classified into:

  1. Isometric (Static) – Muscle develops tension without changing length (e.g., plank, wall sit).
  2. Isotonic (Dynamic) – Muscle changes length under tension:
    • Concentric (positive phase): muscle shortens (e.g., pulling up in a chin-up).
    • Eccentric (negative phase): muscle lengthens while resisting force (e.g., lowering in a squat).
    • Plyometric: rapid eccentric contraction followed by explosive concentric action.
  3. Isokinetic – Contraction performed at a constant speed and range of motion (usually with specialized equipment).

Programming of Training

When someone starts training, adaptations happen quickly. The body responds fast to new stimuli, but as training progresses, the same exercises cause fewer adaptations because the body becomes more “resistant” to them. This means that to keep improving, the training program must be progressively adjusted.

In Calisthenics, as strength increases, progression is achieved by:

  1. Increasing intensity (harder progressions or more challenging angles).
  2. Increasing the repetitions per set.
  3. Increasing the sets per exercise.
  4. Increasing the number of exercises per session, which raises the overall volume of a training unit.

Periodization and Long-Term Programming

Here enter the concepts of periodization and the principle of periodicity.

  • Periodization is the systematic management of training time, balancing load and recovery, and planning how adaptations will be achieved over weeks, months, and years.
  • Periodicity refers to structuring training into cycles, where different factors (strength, endurance, power, etc.) are emphasized at different times for maximum performance.

Types of Cycles

  • Microcycle → ~1 week (3–10 days). Often structured into 4 microcycles per month, focusing sequentially on preparation, hypertrophy, strength, and power.
  • Mesocycle → 4–8 weeks (average: 6 weeks). Usually consists of 4–5 microcycles plus 1 recovery/unloading week.
  • Macrocycle → 1–4 years. Typically aligned with competition schedules (if for an athlete). The last mesocycle ends with a deload phase, so the athlete peaks during competition.

An annual plan is made of mesocycles and microcycles and is divided into phases based on the training or competition calendar.

Training Units and Load Distribution

  • The training unit is the smallest building block of programming, usually lasting at least 30 minutes.
  • A microcycle is a group of training units, carefully structured to avoid monotony and ensure steady adaptation.
  • Within each microcycle, there are:
    • Stimulation units → higher load, inducing adaptation and some fatigue.
    • Recovery units → lower load, helping regeneration (not necessarily at the end).

Weekly microcycles are the most common, as they fit well with everyday social/work rhythms.

Practical Structure

  • 2–3 stimulation sessions per week, separated by recovery sessions.
  • Ending the microcycle with full rest.
  • Mesocycles typically last 4 weeks.
  • Macrocycles consist of multiple mesocycles aimed at achieving long-term goals.

Adaptation Principle

Every training load, if applied near optimal levels, leaves a trace of supercompensation—the body adapts above its initial state. This principle is the basis for continuous performance improvement. The adaptation effect appears in recovery, not during the training itself.

✅ In summary:

  • Beginners → fast progress, simple programming.
  • Intermediate/advanced → need structured periodization.
  • Progressive overload + planned recovery = long-term peak performance.

 

Stability of Training Adaptations

Training with very high intensities leads to rapid improvements in performance, but these adaptations tend to be less stable. To ensure long-term stability, the training load must also include a sufficient volume. The more recent the adaptation, the faster it can be lost if training volume or intensity is reduced. Therefore, progressive and gradual increases in training load, sustained over extended periods, are essential. Long transitional phases or extended breaks without training should be avoided, as they can lead to the loss of previously gained adaptations.

One of the most critical moments in a training program is when reductions or interruptions in load begin to negatively affect the athlete’s adaptive capacity. The relationship between load and recovery must always be treated as a unified whole. Neither excessive volume with insufficient intensity nor extremely high intensity with very low volume will bring lasting results. If the training load (volume and intensity) diverges too much from the athlete’s actual capacity, adaptation may stall or even reverse, leading to stagnation or decreased performance.

In general:

  • High-volume, low-to-moderate intensity loads primarily enhance endurance capacity.
  • Low-volume, high-to-maximum intensity loads primarily develop maximal strength, explosive power, and speed.

For experienced athletes, the balance between volume and intensity must be carefully managed. Younger or less experienced athletes, however, may still achieve notable progress in strength and speed with medium-to-high intensity stimuli, provided the training is varied and carefully monitored. A comprehensive approach, with continuous adjustments throughout the year, is key to avoiding imbalances.

Goal Definition and Achievement

The type of training chosen must always align with the athlete’s goals. Before designing any routine, these goals must be made explicit and measurable. A vague, unstructured training plan will only produce vague results. While this may suffice for beginners, advanced athletes require precise objectives to drive progress. The more specific the goals, the higher the probability of achieving them through proper planning.

A widely used framework for setting effective goals is the SMART/SMARTER model, where each letter represents a principle of goal setting:

  • Specific – clearly defined goals
  • Measurable – quantifiable outcomes
  • Action-oriented – supported by a practical training plan
  • Realistic – aligned with the athlete’s capabilities
  • Time- and resource-bound – limited by available time and equipment
  • Evaluated – subject to ongoing review
  • Recorded – tracked and documented for accountability

Alternative versions substitute Evaluated with Entertaining to highlight motivation and enjoyment. Regardless of variation, the model emphasizes structure, clarity, and sustainability in training routines.

Once goals are set, the next step is to define timelines, allocate training time across different objectives, and build a plan that prioritizes the areas most relevant to the athlete. Key training domains often include: strength, technique, endurance, power, skill acquisition, balance, flexibility (both passive and active), agility, and coordination.

As the saying goes: “Failing to plan is planning to fail.”

Balance and Symmetry in Physique

Before beginning or resuming training—even if the individual has prior athletic experience—it is critical to assess the current condition of the body. This involves identifying strengths, weaknesses, and any previous injuries or limitations in joints and muscles. For example, the shoulder joint is among the most commonly injured in calisthenics due to its wide range of motion and inherent instability. For this reason, shoulder stability and strength should be a central focus in any program. Still, training should never neglect other joints, as the human body functions as an interconnected chain.

Balance and symmetry must underpin every training plan. Strength should not be concentrated in isolated areas, but evenly distributed across agonist and antagonist muscle groups to avoid muscular imbalances, postural issues, restricted joint range of motion, and eventual injuries. Comprehensive, full-body conditioning ensures both performance and longevity.

Practical strategies include:

  • Incorporating compound exercises that target multiple muscle groups simultaneously (e.g., movements that develop both strength and flexibility, or balance and coordination).
  • Pairing antagonist exercises together, such as handstand training with L-sit/V-sit/Manna progressions, to enhance both performance and efficiency.
  • Dynamic flexibility strength work, which improves proprioception, control, and force output across a wide range of motion.

Regular testing, record-keeping, and progress monitoring are vital for adjusting existing routines or designing new ones. By doing so, athletes ensure that training remains balanced, progressive, and aligned with their evolving goals.

 

The Fundamental Hierarchy of a Training Routine

The order of exercises within a training session plays a crucial role in maximizing performance and minimizing risk of injury. The most effective sequence is generally the following:

1. Warm-Up

A proper warm-up is essential and must be relevant both to the upcoming workout and the individual’s needs. It raises body temperature, heart rate, and blood flow, while also preparing the nervous system and focusing the mind.

As athletes progress, warm-ups can include easier progressions of the main exercises in the session. Over time, movements that were once difficult may eventually serve as warm-ups themselves. This approach maintains proficiency in advanced skills and prepares the body with precision and safety.

⚠️ Note: Passive static stretching should generally be avoided during the warm-up, especially at the extremes of a joint’s range of motion, as it temporarily reduces muscle force capacity. Dynamic stretches can be included, but always with caution.

Warm-up typically begins with rotational joint exercises and then moves to light dynamic work for each muscle group.

2. Proprioception and Technical Skills

Immediately after warming up, the body is most receptive to learning and refining new skills. This is the optimal time for practicing handstands, flips, explosive drills, and other technical skills.
Emphasis must always be placed on technique, as it conserves energy and lays the foundation for higher-level training.

3. Strength Work

Strength training follows skills practice. At this stage, the athlete is not yet fatigued, which allows for maximum performance in high-intensity exercises such as isometric holds, concentric and eccentric strength work. Placing strength training later in the routine would compromise output due to fatigue.

4. Endurance

Endurance training—whether intervals (HIIT), circuit training, or longer aerobic sets—naturally follows strength work. After the body has been taxed with heavy loads, continuing into endurance training shifts the focus while still capitalizing on accumulated fatigue.

5. Injury Prevention, Mobility, and Flexibility

This stage focuses on gradually reducing heart rate and addressing joint mobility, flexibility, and corrective work. Since the body is already warm and muscles are fatigued, this is an ideal time for deeper flexibility training.

⚠️ Special case: If there is an acute injury under rehabilitation, corrective exercises must be done at the beginning of the session, before fatigue sets in. Preventive or stabilizing work for healthy joints (e.g., shoulder stability) can remain in this stage.

6. Cool-Down

The session closes with static stretching across the entire body, with particular emphasis on the muscles that were trained. Cool-down helps reduce tension, restore baseline heart rate, and prevent long-term imbalances or injuries.

Periodic Assessment

Every 5–6 weeks, progress should be assessed, goals re-evaluated, and exercises adjusted or replaced as necessary. This ensures continuous adaptation and long-term progress.

 

One Repetition Maximum (1RM)

Definition
The One Repetition Maximum (1RM) is the maximum amount of weight that a muscle or group of muscles can lift in a single repetition with proper technique. It represents the absolute limit of strength in a specific exercise.

Although 1RM testing can be useful, it should not involve reckless lifting of uncontrolled loads that risk injury. Instead, there is a structured procedure to safely determine it.

1RM Testing Procedure

The goal is to gradually increase the weight lifted until the athlete reaches the point where only one repetition is possible. That load is recorded as the 1RM.

Step-by-step process:

  1. Familiarization: The athlete must be familiar with the exercise and proper technique.
  2. Warm-Up: Perform 5–10 repetitions with a load at 40–60% of the estimated 1RM. Rest for 1 minute with light stretching.
  3. Intermediate Set: Perform 3–5 repetitions with a load at 60–80% of the estimated 1RM.
  4. Progressive Loading: Increase the weight by 2–5 kg (or appropriate increments depending on the exercise). After each successful attempt, rest 3–5 minutes before trying again with a slightly heavier weight.
  5. Completion: When the athlete fails to lift the load for one full repetition with proper form, the last successful lift is considered their 1RM.

⚠️ Important: The athlete should ideally reach their 1RM within 3–5 attempts to avoid excessive fatigue that could compromise accuracy.

Alternative Estimation Method

Since direct 1RM testing can be time-consuming or impractical for every exercise, an alternative method uses the following formula:

1RM = ((Reps / 30) + 1) × Weight lifted

 

Example:
If an athlete performs 5 repetitions with 25 kg, the estimated 1RM is:

((5 / 30) + 1) × 25 = 29 kg ≈ 30 kg

 

This approach is especially useful in calisthenics, where direct 1RM testing is not always practical.

Application of 1RM

Knowing your 1RM allows you to calculate training loads as percentages of maximum strength. For example:

  • 8 repetitions at 70% of 1RM means selecting a load equal to 70% of the maximum weight you can lift once.

In training programs, “3RM” or “5RM” indicates the load at which only 3 or 5 repetitions can be performed correctly before failure.

Practical Notes

  • 1RM values are not static—they change over time as strength improves.
  • In calisthenics, 1RM estimation is often more practical than direct testing, except in specific circumstances such as competition preparation or specialized assessments.
  • Required equipment depends on the chosen exercise, but generally includes weights or resistance forms suitable for controlled, progressive testing.

 

Training Zones by Percentage of 1RM

% of 1RM Repetition Range Primary Adaptation Training Goal
50–60% 15–20+ reps Muscular endurance Improve stamina, recovery, and work capacity
60–70% 12–15 reps Hypertrophy (endurance focus) Build muscle with high volume
65–85% 6–12 reps Hypertrophy (strength focus) Optimal for muscle growth
75–90% 4–6 reps Maximal strength Increase neural efficiency and strength
85–100% 1–3 reps Peak strength / Power Develop maximum force and explosive capacity

✅ How to use it:

  • If your program calls for strength, aim for 4–6 reps at 75–90% of 1RM.
  • For muscle growth, work mostly in the 6–12 rep range at 65–85% of 1RM.
  • For endurance, increase volume and lower load, 12–20 reps at 50–70% of 1RM.

 

Determining Training Volume by Exercise Type

Training volume can be measured differently depending on the type of muscular contraction involved:

  • Concentric (positives): sets × repetitions
  • Isometric (static holds): sets × seconds held
  • Eccentric (negatives): sets × (repetitions × seconds of the eccentric phase)
  • Weighted Calisthenics / Streetlifting: added weight (kg) × repetitions × sets

A useful equivalence to remember is:
1 concentric repetition ≈ 2 seconds isometric hold ≈ 1 second eccentric phase.

Practical Guidelines

  • For strength development, an effective method is 3 sets of 3–8 repetitions at ~80–93% of max strength.
  • Stop 1–2 reps before failure to maintain proper technique.
  • Once you can perform 3×10 reps in an exercise (or a 25–30s isometric hold), it’s time to progress to a harder variation or the main skill.
  • Similarly, if you can manage at least 3 controlled eccentric reps of 3s each, you’re ready to attempt the next progression.

Recovery Considerations

  • Eccentrics cause greater muscular damage and take longer to recover from. They should not be performed constantly but used periodically, especially when breaking through plateaus.
  • For joint and tendon strengthening, increased blood flow, and injury prevention, high-rep ranges (12+ reps) are most effective.
  • Flexibility and rehabilitation training often require 15+ reps with minimal or no load.

Rest Intervals Between Sets

Rest times vary depending on the training goal:

Training Goal Rest Interval
Max Strength 2–5 minutes
Power 2–5 minutes
Hypertrophy 30–90 seconds
Endurance ≤30 seconds

💡 At around 3 minutes, ATP resynthesis reaches 90–95%, making this rest period ideal for pure strength. However, if time is limited, you can shorten rests by pairing antagonist muscle groups (e.g., planche + front lever, handstand + manna) or by combining upper- and lower-body exercises. This saves both time and energy.

Integrating Different Contraction Types

For balanced development, it is best to train all three contraction types rather than focusing exclusively on one (e.g., only isometrics). Combining movements (like Nordics with reverse hyperextensions) enhances posterior chain development while saving time.

Advanced athletes may also integrate exercise transitions (e.g., muscle-up → front lever → back lever or handstand → elbow lever → handstand). These combinations increase efficiency, variety, and overall training stimulus. Beginners, however, will benefit most from consistent work on the foundational exercises.

👉 Be creative with your training design—variety in stimuli leads to greater progress and keeps motivation high.

 

Muscle Fiber Types

Motor unit: one motor neuron + all the fibers it innervates (all the same fiber type within that unit).

Fiber type Color/traits Primary fuel/capacity Best for Hypertrophy potential
Type I (slow-twitch) Red, mitochondria-rich Oxidative, fatigue-resistant Endurance Low
Type IIa (fast oxidative-glycolytic) Pink, highly adaptable Mixed oxidative/glycolytic Can shift toward strength/power or endurance based on training Moderate
Type IIb (fast glycolytic) Pale/white, fastest Anaerobic, fatigues quickly Max strength & power High

Programming takeaway: Specificity rules. If you want hypertrophy, prioritize higher tension (load or leverage) and control tempo; if load must be lower, use faster concentric intent—never at the expense of technique.

Progressing Load & Exercise Variations

  • For strength, keep sets under 10 reps; sweet spot 3–8 reps at ~80–93% effort to bias Type II fibers (beginners: 5–8 works well).
  • Execute with explosive concentric and crisp technique.
  • Time Under Tension (TUT) matters—quality seconds under strain drive adaptation.

Simple progression rules (when to level up)

  • Balance/positions: hold 5–6 s cleanly.
  • Isometrics/statics: hold ≥6 s with perfect form.
  • Dynamics (freestyle on bars): 3 clean reps.
  • Eccentrics: 3 reps × 3 s negatives (minimum).

Building Well-Rounded Routines

  • Aim for symmetry: balanced skills, strength, and mobility across the whole body. Full-body sessions generally activate the nervous system better and support both strength and mass.
  • Example session order (optimize performance & safety):
    1. Warm-up → 2) Skills/technique → 3) Push → 4) Pull → 5) Legs → 6) Mobility/prehab → 7) Cool-down.
  • Start with the hardest or most technical work (explosive, isometric, or eccentric) while fresh.
  • If a skill needs range, do the specific mobility immediately before the loaded attempts.
  • Limit simultaneous goals: pick 1–2 key targets per category to avoid diluting effort.

Why mobility matters: Better active range = cleaner technique = less energy cost per rep/hold. Dynamic (active) flexibility drills deliver strength, control, and coordination together.

Neural Adaptation & The Need for Deloads

Practice improves motor-unit recruitment, firing rate, synchronization, and reduces antagonist co-contraction—repetition builds skill. But the nervous system fatigues, especially with isometrics and eccentrics (common in calisthenics).

Deload options

  • Keep intensity, halve volume.
  • Temporarily remove a whole stressor (e.g., isometrics).
  • Emphasize mobility, coordination, easy cardio, or tissue care.
  • Massage/chiro can help recovery.

Overtraining comes from chronic overload without recovery (not one hard day). Plan rest or lower load/volume to avoid plateau and regression.

Plateaus & Recovery

  • Monotony blunts adaptation—unchanged external load eventually just maintains. Vary the stimulus or rest.
  • Recovery window: typically 48–72 h for the main tissues after hard training. Ignore it long enough and you’ll hit a performance plateau.

Active recovery beats total rest for soreness: light movement, hydration, soft-tissue work (foam roll/massage).

Fatigue, Soreness, and Cramps

  • Muscle fatigue: H⁺ accumulation lowers pH → enzyme inhibition → force drops. At low intensities, poor blood flow can also drive fatigue.
  • Acute soreness (during/after): H⁺/lactate and K⁺ shifts → transient swelling and nociceptor irritation.
  • DOMS (24–48 h peak): microtears (especially after eccentrics) and connective-tissue strain.
  • Cramps (EAMCs): often electrolyte shifts (K⁺ efflux, Ca²⁺ handling), reduced blood flow, Mg deficiency, and spinal reflex dysregulation (↑muscle spindle, ↓Golgi activity).

Don’t confuse normal training fatigue with an evolving injury. Experienced athletes feel DOMS less, but tissue strain is still real.

Recovery Methods

  • Active recovery: low-to-moderate movement to accelerate return to baseline (e.g., 10–20 min easy run, 2–3×/week—more than this can hinder calisthenics progress).
  • Passive recovery: rest, PT, sauna, therapeutic massage, etc.

Practical Timing (session planning)

  • Warm-up (5–15 min): joint circles → easy concentric/isometric prep → light cardio burst (e.g., 60 s burpees/mountain climbers/jumping jacks).
  • Skills: ~15–20 min when strength is main goal (longer if skills are the goal).
  • Weighted calisthenics: periodically lighten the load and raise reps to add volume without frying the CNS.

Trainable Qualities (pick your focus)

  • Strength, Endurance, Speed, Power (Rate of Force Development), Agility, Mobility/Flexibility, Explosiveness, Technique, Balance, Neuromuscular control.

Definitions you use

  • Kinesthesia: conscious sense of limb position, movement, and force—driven by sensory input about muscle length/changes and tension.
  • Proprioception (broader): afferent information for postural control, stability, balance, and reflexive motor responses integrated by the CNS for coordinated movement.

 

Mobility & Flexibility: What to train, when, and how

General vs. sport-specific mobility

  • General mobility: baseline ROM at the shoulder, hip, and spine—good for health, not enough for high performance.
  • Specific mobility: ROM requirements of your sport/skills (e.g., overhead stability for handstands, hip ER for press to HS). Program it in warm-ups, between strength sets, or as its own session.

Key definitions

  • Flexibility / Mobility (used here functionally): the ability to perform voluntary movement through large/ideal ROM without pain or compensation.
  • Flexibility (tissue focus): extensibility of muscles, tendons, ligaments, skin.
  • Dynamic (active) flexibility: athlete moves the limb through ROM without external help (strength + control).
  • Passive flexibility: ROM achieved with external assistance (partner, gravity, props); usually larger than active.

Performance payoff: better technique and motor learning, fewer antagonistic “brakes,” lower injury risk, faster recovery.

Programming principles

When to place it

  • Warm-up: joint prep + light dynamic ROM relevant to the session.
  • During strength: micro-blocks of specific mobility between sets.
  • After training / separate sessions: longer holds, tissue work, PNF, active end-range strength.

Dosing (simple, effective)

  • Static (post-session): hold 30–40 s, 3–5 sets per position; breathe slow & relaxed.
  • Active mobility: 8–15 controlled reps × 1–4 sets across angles; add light load (ankle/wrist weights, plates) when solid.
  • Maintenance: small daily doses work best; long gaps = rapid losses.

Safety & transfer

  • Build strength at end-range (active drills) to stabilize new ROM.
  • Large muscles don’t “block” mobility—poor programming does.
  • If fatigued, prefer static work to down-regulate tone and boost blood flow.

Dynamic vs. Static stretching (before performance)

Dynamic / ballistic

  • Pros: primes blood flow, coordination, power/speed; builds active ROM.
  • Cons: very fast swings can trigger the stretch reflex. Keep amplitude controlled.

Static

  • Keep short if done before power/sprint/plyos:
    • Total time <30 s per muscle group → minimal impact.
    • >90 s per muscle group acutely reduces explosive performance.
  • Best placed after training or in separate mobility sessions.

Age & adaptation

  • ROM generally declines with inactivity—not simply with age.
  • All ages improve with consistent practice; pace of progress varies.
  • Regular loading prevents collagen shortening; inactivity breeds stiffness.

Practical templates

Warm-up block (6–10 min)

  1. Joint circles (neck→T-spine→shoulder→hip→ankle).
  2. Dynamic ROM in session planes (e.g., leg lifts, controlled arm arcs).
  3. Activation at end-range (e.g., hip flexor lift-offs, scapular CARs).

Post-session block (8–15 min)

  • 2–4 positions most used today.
  • Static holds 30–40 s × 3–5 + 1–2 active end-range drills (8–12 controlled reps).

Dedicated mobility session (20–40 min)

  • 3–4 regions × 2–3 drills each:
    • Order: tissue prep → progressive active ROM → PNF (hold-relax / contract-relax) or long statics → easy down-reg.

Spotting / Assisted stretching

  • Assistance reduces fear, corrects technique, and can accelerate learning—only with a skilled spotter who knows where to hold and when to stop.
  • Poor spotting risks strains (flexibility) or falls (flips/HS). Don’t outsource safety to inexperience.

Quick rules of thumb

  • Train active first, own the range, then add passive if needed.
  • Progress range gradually; pain ≠ progress.
  • Pair mobility with the skill’s positions for best carryover.
  • Consistency beats marathons: a little daily > a lot occasionally.

 

Closed vs. Open Kinetic Chain Exercises (CKC vs. OKC)

Quick definitions

  • Closed-chain (CKC): the distal segment is fixed (e.g., foot planted, hand on floor/bar). Multiple joints move together over the fixed contact. Examples: squats, lunges, step-ups, push-ups, pull-ups, ring support.
  • Open-chain (OKC): the distal segment is free in space. Movement occurs primarily at a single joint against external resistance. Examples: knee extension machine, leg curl, seated knee flex/extend with cuff weight; biceps curl, leg raise.

Why CKC matters (especially for the knee)

  • Co-contraction & dynamic stability: CKC tends to co-activate agonists + antagonists (e.g., quadriceps + hamstrings + gastrocnemius), enhancing joint compression and stability.
  • Proprioception: Fixed contact and multi-joint loading stimulate articular receptors, improving joint position sense and reflexive control.
  • Function carryover: Mirrors real-life and sport tasks (stance, cutting, landing), preparing athletes for unpredictable conditions.

OKC: when and why to use

  • Targeted strengthening: Precisely overload weak links (e.g., isolated quad or hamstring strength, end-range deficits).
  • Early rehab / low joint load ranges: Useful when you must dose torque carefully or avoid full-body load.
  • Hypertrophy focus: Simple to progress in small load increments.

Programming guidelines (knee focus, transferable to other joints)

  • Rehab sequencing (common pattern):
    1. Early phase: pain-free ROM, light OKC (short-arc quads/hamstrings), isometrics, balance drills.
    2. Mid phase: introduce CKC with partial ROM (e.g., supported squats, split-squat to box), controlled tempos.
    3. Late phase / performance: progress CKC complexity (single-leg, unstable surfaces only as needed), decel/landing, change-of-direction; sprinkle in OKC for lagging muscle groups or end-range strength.
  • Angle management (patellofemoral tolerance):
    • OKC knee extension: favor 90→45° early to moderate joint stress; avoid heavy loading 0–30° initially if irritable.
    • CKC squats: start 0–45° knee flexion; progress towards 60–90° as tolerated.
  • Balance your week:
    • Strength days: anchor with CKC (squat pattern, hinge, step), then add OKC accessories for symmetry.
    • Skill/sport days: CKC + plyos (landing mechanics first), light OKC “touch-ups.”

Progressions & examples

CKC (lower body)

  • Bilateral: wall sit → goblet squat → back/front squat → tempo/pause squat → jump/land.
  • Unilateral: split squat → rear-foot elevated split squat → step-up (higher box) → walking lunge → skater squat → hop & stick.

OKC (lower body)

  • Knee extension (short-arc → full-arc)
  • Hamstring curl (prone/seated/band)
  • Hip flexion/abduction/adduction with cable/band

CKC (upper body)

  • Push-up incline → floor → ring push-up → dip (box → parallel bars)
  • Pull-up assisted → bodyweight → weighted; ring rows → inverted rows
  • Hand support: plank → long-lever plank → ring support holds

OKC (upper body)

  • DB/CS cable row variations (still somewhat closed at shoulder; distal free)
  • Biceps curls, triceps extensions, shoulder ER/IR with bands/cable

Coaching cues (knee CKC)

  • Tripod foot (heel + 1st/5th metatarsal), knee tracks over 2nd–3rd toe.
  • Soft knee on landings, “hips back, ribs down,” control eccentric 2–3 s.
  • Progress ROM → load → speed → chaos (external perturbations / sport).

Takeaways

  • Use CKC to build global, reflexive joint stability and sport transfer.
  • Use OKC to target weak links, end-range strength, or early-phase tolerance.
  • Blend both across the week; manage joint angles and tempos; progress systematically.

 

Training Systems

Training systems are organized and pre-structured workout frameworks that someone can apply to their program if they prefer not to build a fully personalized routine from scratch. Some of these systems are supported by scientific research regarding their effectiveness, while others are based more on tradition or practice.

There are many training systems, but not all are used in calisthenics, nor are they all equally effective. The following are some indicative examples:

Multiple-Set System

This approach begins with 2–3 warm-up sets of increasing load, followed by multiple sets with stable load. For compound (multi-joint) exercises, 3 sets of 5–6RM are typically used, though the number of sets and repetitions can be adjusted depending on training goals. Periodization of load is required. This system forms the foundation for most others.

Single-Set System

Only one set per exercise is performed, usually <8–12RM, with 5 minutes of rest. It can significantly improve maximal strength but is less effective than the multiple-set system in the long run, since strength declines more quickly after stopping training. Still, it is ideal for people with very limited time.

Bulk System

Each exercise is performed for 3 sets of 5–6 repetitions. This can lead to a rapid increase in strength within a relatively short period.

Exhaustion System

Can be incorporated into any other training system. It involves performing as many repetitions as possible, with correct technique, until momentary muscular failure. The idea is that this maximizes motor unit recruitment. It produces significant strength gains.

Negative System (Eccentric Training)

Focuses on eccentric (lengthening) contractions or lowering weights under controlled tempo. These use heavier loads than concentric repetitions and require precise technique. This system promotes greater strength increases and can enhance neurological facilitation of concentric movements. Typically, loads of 105–140% of concentric weight are recommended.

Super Sets System

Perform multiple sets for two opposing exercises (agonist vs. antagonist, e.g., biceps curls with triceps extensions), or a sequence of sets targeting the same muscle group with minimal to no rest between them (8–10 repetitions). This promotes hypertrophy and local muscular endurance while still improving strength. Rest between sets is minimal or nonexistent.

Tri-Set System

Involves performing three different exercises for the same muscle group consecutively, with minimal or no rest in between. This method increases local muscular endurance, enhances hypertrophy, and provides a strong metabolic stimulus.

Giant-Set System

Consists of four or more exercises for the same muscle group performed in sequence, again with minimal or no rest between exercises. It is highly intense, maximizes muscle fatigue, and is often used for advanced athletes aiming at hypertrophy and endurance.

Pyramid System

Training starts with lighter weights and higher repetitions, gradually increasing the weight and reducing the repetitions (ascending pyramid). Alternatively, the reverse pyramid begins with heavy loads and lower reps, followed by progressively lighter loads and higher reps. Both methods enhance strength and hypertrophy.

Drop-Set System

After reaching muscular failure at a certain weight, the load is immediately reduced (by ~10–30%) and repetitions continue without rest. This can be repeated multiple times within a single set. Drop-sets extend time under tension and maximize hypertrophy.

Circuit Training

A series of different exercises performed one after another with minimal rest between them. Each exercise typically targets a different muscle group, allowing for both strength and cardiovascular development. Circuits are time-efficient and effective for general conditioning.

Interval Training

Alternating periods of high-intensity effort with periods of rest or low-intensity activity. Widely used for endurance and cardiovascular training, it improves aerobic and anaerobic capacity. High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) is the most well-known form.

Split System

Divides training sessions by muscle groups or movement patterns (e.g., push/pull/legs, or upper/lower body splits). Splits allow greater volume and intensity per muscle group and are common in bodybuilding and strength training.

Isotonic / Isokinetic / Isometric Systems

  • Isotonic: constant load through a range of motion (traditional strength training).
  • Isokinetic: controlled speed of movement, usually with specialized equipment.
  • Isometric: static holds where the muscle contracts without changing length (e.g., planks, wall sits).

Contrast Training System

Combines heavy strength exercises with explosive, plyometric movements. Example: heavy squats followed by jump squats. This method improves power by taking advantage of post-activation potentiation (PAP).

Pre-Exhaustion System

Begins with an isolation exercise for a muscle, immediately followed by a compound exercise involving the same muscle group. For example, leg extensions before squats. This ensures the target muscle is fully fatigued and maximally recruited during the compound movement.

Post-Exhaustion System

The opposite of pre-exhaustion: a compound exercise is performed first, followed by an isolation exercise for the same muscle. Example: squats followed by leg extensions.

Rest-Pause System

Involves taking short intra-set breaks (10–20 seconds) after reaching failure, then continuing with additional repetitions. This allows the athlete to extend the set beyond typical fatigue points, maximizing strength and hypertrophy gains.

 

 

How to Build a Training Routine – Summary

  • Determine the number of training sessions per week. For beginners, three (3) sessions per week are ideal.
  • Decide on the type of training you will follow. For beginners, a full-body workout is the best option.
  • Set your goals. One or two goals per training category are enough—don’t overdo it.
  • Select your exercises based on your goals.
  • Choose the appropriate progressions for your level and define the number of repetitions.
  • Define the sets per exercise.
  • Decide how much time you will dedicate to each training area (e.g., skills, strength, flexibility).
  • Plan a proper warm-up routine to begin each session.
  • Plan mobility and flexibility work to finish each session.
  • Consider combining exercises to save time and increase efficiency.
  • Write down your program to stay focused and consistent.
  • Progressively increase your reps or move to harder progressions as you improve.
  • Keep your program for six to eight (6–8) weeks, unless you reach a plateau earlier.
  • Take a recovery week with lighter training. You may reduce your workload or frequency to 50%.
  • During this recovery week, design your new program based on the adaptations you have achieved.
  • If something didn’t work or didn’t deliver the expected results, change it in the next program.
  • Start your new training cycle with enthusiasm and energy!

 

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